I Love Music and I Love Science-Why Would I Want to Mix the Two?
"I love science, and it pains me to think that so many are terrified of the subject or feel that choosing science means you cannot also choose compassion, or the arts, or be awed by nature. Science is not meant to cure us of mystery, but to reinvent and reinvigorate it."
-Robert Sapolsky, Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers , p xii.
In the summer of 1969, when I was 11, I bought a stereo system at the local hi-fi shop. It cost all of the $100 I had earned weeding neighbor's gardens that spring at 75 cents an hour. I spent long afternoons in my room, listening to records: Cream, The Rolling Stones, Chicago, Simon & Garfunkel, Bizet, Tchaikovsky and the saxophonist Boots Randolph. I didn't listen particularly loud, at least not compared to my college days when I actually set my loudspeakers on fire by cranking up the volume too high, but the noise was evidently too much for my parents. My mother is a novelist; she wrote every day in the den just down the hall and played the piano for an hour every night before dinner. My father was a businessman; he worked 80 hour weeks, 40 of those hours in his office at home on evenings and weekends. Being the businessman that he was, my father made me a proposition: he would buy me a pair of headphones if I would promise to use them when he was home. Those headphones changed the way I listened to music forever.
The new artists that I was listening to were all exploring stereo mixing for the first time. Because the speakers that came with my $100 all-in-one stereo system weren't very good, I had never before heard the depth that I could hear in the headphones - the placement of instruments both in the left-right field and in the front-back (reverberant) space. Records were no longer just about the songs for me anymore, but about the sound. Headphones opened up a world of sonic colors, a palette of nuances and details that went far beyond the chords and melody, the lyrics, or a particular singer's voice. The swampy deep south ambience of "Green River" by Creedence, or the pastoral, open-space beauty of The Beatles' "Mother Nature's Son"; the oboes in Beethoven's Sixth (conducted by Karajan), faint and drenched in the ambience of a large wood and stone church; the sound was an enveloping experience. Headphones also made the music more personal for me; it was suddenly coming from inside my head, not out there in the world. This personal connection is ultimately what drove me to become a recording engineer and producer myself.
Many years later, Paul Simon told me that the sound is always what he was after, too. "The way that I listen to my own records is for the sound of them; not the chords or the lyrics - my first impression is of the overall sound."
I dropped out of college after the incident with the speakers in my dorm room, and I joined a rock band. We got good enough to record at a 24-track studio in California, with a talented engineer, Mark Needham, who went on to record hit records by Chris Isaak, Cake, and Fleetwood Mac. Mark took a liking to me, probably because I was the only one interested in going into the control room to hear back what we sounded like, while the others were more interested in getting high in between takes. Mark treated me like a producer, although I didn't know what one was at the time, asking me what the band wanted to sound like. He taught me how much of a difference to the sound a microphone could make, or even the influence of how a microphone was placed. At first, I didn't hear some of the differences he taught me about, but he taught me what to listen for. "Notice that when I put this microphone closer to the guitar amp, the sound becomes fuller, rounder, and more even; but when I put it farther back, it picks up some of the sound of the room, giving it a more spacious sound, although you lose some of the mid-range if I do that."
Our band became moderately well-known in San Francisco, and our tapes played on local rock radio stations. When the band broke up - due to the guitarist's frequent suicide attempts and the vocalist's nasty habit of taking nitrous oxide and cutting himself with razor blades - I found work as a producer of other bands. I learned to hear things I had never heard before; the difference between one microphone and another, even between one brand of recording tape and another (Ampex 456 tape had a characteristic "bump" in the low frequency range, Scotch 250 had a characteristic crispness in the high frequencies, and Agfa 467 a luster in the midrange). Once I knew what to listen for, I could tell Ampex from Scotch or Agfa tape as easily as I could tell an apple from a pear or an orange. I progressed to work with other great engineers, like Leslie Ann Jones (who had worked with Frank Sinatra and Bobby McFerrin), Fred Catero (Chicago, Janis Joplin), and Jeffrey Norman (John Fogerty, The Grateful Dead). Even though I was the producer - the person in charge of the sessions - I was intimidated by them all. Some of the engineers let me sit in on their sessions with other artists, such as Heart, Journey, Santana, Whitney Houston, and Aretha Franklin. I got a lifetime of education watching them interact with the artists, talking about subtle nuances in how a guitar part was articulated or how a vocal performance had been delivered. They would talk about syllables in a lyric, and choose among 10 different performances. They could hear so well; how did they train their ears to hear things that mere mortals couldn't?
While working with small, unknown bands, I got to know the studio managers and engineers, and they steered me toward better and better work. One day an engineer didn't show up and I spliced some tape edits for Carlos Santana. Another time, the great producer Sandy Pearlman went out for lunch during a Blue Öyster Cult session and left me in charge to finish the vocals. One thing led to another, and I spent over a decade producing records in California; I was eventually lucky to be able to work with many well-known musicians. But I also worked with dozens of musical no-names, people who are extremely talented but never made it. I began to wonder why some musicians become household names while others languish in obscurity. I also wondered why music seemed to come so easily to some and not others. Where does creativity come from? Why do some songs move us so and others leave us cold? And what about the role of perception in all of this, the uncanny ability of great musicians and engineers to hear nuances that most of us don't?
These questions led me back to school for some answers. While still working as a record producer, I drove down to Stanford University twice a week with Sandy Pearlman to sit in on neuropsychology lectures by Karl Pribram. I saw that psychology was the field that held the answers to some of my questions - questions about memory, perception, creativity, and the common instrument underlying all of these: the human brain. But instead of coming away with answers to my questions, I came away with more questions - as is often the case in science. Each new question opened my mind to an appreciation for the complexity of music, of the world, and of the human experience. As the philosopher Paul Churchland notes, humans have been trying to understand the world throughout most of recorded history; in just the past two hundred years, our curiosity has revealed much of what Nature had kept hidden from us: the nature of space-time, the constitution of matter, the many forms of energy, the origins of the universe, the nature of life itself with the discovery of DNA and the completion of the mapping of the human genome just five years ago. But one mystery has not been solved: the mystery of the human brain and how it gives rise to thoughts and feelings, hopes and desires, feelings of love, the experience of beauty, not to mention dance, visual art, literature and music.
What is music? Where does it come from? Why do some sequences of sounds move us so while others - such as dogs barking or cars screeching - make many of us uncomfortable? For some of us, these questions occupy a large part of our life's work. For others, the idea of picking music apart in this way seems tantamount to studying the chemical structure in a Goya canvas, at the expense of seeing the art that the painter was trying to produce. When I told the Oxford Historian Martin Kemp about this book, he pointed out a similarity between artists and scientists. Most artists describe their work as experiments - part of a series of efforts designed to explore a common concern or to establish a viewpoint. My good friend and colleague William Forde Thompson (a music cognition scientist and composer at the University of Toronto) adds that the work of scientists and artists both involve similar stages of development: a creative and exploratory "brainstorming" stage, followed by testing and refining stages that typically involve the application of set procedures, but often informed by additional creative problem-solving. Artists' studios and scientists' laboratories share similarities as well, with a large number of projects going at once, in various stages of incompletion. Both require specialized tools, and the results are - unlike the final plans for a suspension bridge, or the tallying of money in a bank account at the end of the business day - open to interpretation. What artists and scientists have in common is the ability to live in an openended state of interpretation and reinterpretation of the products of our work. The work of artists and scientists is ultimately the pursuit of truth, but members of both camps understand that the nature of truth is that it is contextual and changeable, dependent on point of view, and that today's truths become tomorrow's disproven hypotheses or forgotten objets d'art. One need look no further than Piaget, Freud, and Skinner to find theories that once held widespread currency and were later overturned (or at least dramatically reevaluated). In music, a number of groups were prematurely held up as of lasting importance: Cheap Trick were hailed as the new Beatles, and at one time the Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock devoted as much space to Adam and the Ants as they did to U2. There were times when people couldn't imagine a day when most of the world would not know the names Paul Stookey, Christopher Cross, or Mary Ford. For the artist, the goal of the painting or musical composition is not to convey literal truth, but an aspect of a universal truth that if successful, will continue to move and to touch people even as contexts, societies, and cultures change. For the scientist, the goal of a theory is to replace an old truth, while accepting that someday this theory too will be replaced by a new "truth," because that is the way science advances.
Music is unusual among all human activities for both its ubiquity and its antiquity . No known human culture now nor anytime in the recorded past lacked music. Some of the oldest physical artifacts found in human and proto-human excavation sites are musical instruments: bone flutes and animal skins stretched over tree stumps to make drums. Whenever humans come together for any reason, music is there: weddings, funerals, graduation from college, men marching off to war, stadium sporting events, prayer, a romantic dinner, mothers rocking their infants to sleep, and college students studying with music as a background. Even more so in non-industrialized cultures than in modern Western societies, music is and was part of the fabric of everyday life. Only relatively recently in our own culture, 500 years or so ago, a distinction arose that cut society in two, forming separate classes of musical performers and music listeners. Throughout most of the world and for most of human history, music making was as natural an activity as breathing and walking and everyone participated. Concert halls, dedicated to the performance of music, arose only in the last several centuries.
Jim Ferguson, whom I have known since high school, is now a professor of anthropology. Jim is one of the funniest and most fiercely intelligent people I know, but he is shy - I don't know how he manages to teach his lecture courses. For his doctoral degree at Harvard, he performed field work in Lesotho, a small nation completely surrounded by South Africa. There, studying and interacting with a local villagers, Jim patiently earned their trust until one day he was asked to join in one of their songs. So, typically, when asked to sing with these Sotho villagers, Jim said in a soft voice, "I don't sing," and it was true: we had been in high school band together and although he was an excellent oboe player, he couldn't carry a tune in a bucket. The villagers found his objection puzzling and inexplicable. The Sotho consider singing an ordinary, everyday activity performed by everyone, young and old, men and women, not an activity for a special few.
Our culture and indeed our very language makes a distinction between a class of expert performers - the Arthur Rubensteins, Ella Fitzgeralds, Paul McCartneys - and the rest of us. The rest of us pay money to hear the experts entertain us. Jim knew that he wasn't much of a singer or dancer, and to him, a public display of singing and dancing implied he thought himself an expert. The villagers just stared at Jim and said, "What do you mean you don't sing?! You talk!" Jim told me later, "it was as odd to them as if I told them that I couldn't walk or dance, even though I have both my legs." Singing and dancing were a natural activity in everybody's lives, seamlessly integrated and involving everyone. The Sesotho verb for singing ( ho bina ), as in many of the world's languages, also means to dance; there is no distinction since it is assumed that singing involves bodily movement.
A couple of generations ago, before television, many families would sit around and play music together for entertainment. Nowadays there is a great emphasis on technique and skill, and whether a musician is "good enough" to play for others. Music making has become a somewhat reserved activity in our culture, and the rest of us listen. The music industry is one of the largest industries in the United States, employing hundreds of thousands of people. Album sales alone are a 30 billion dollar industry, and this figure doesn't even account for concert ticket sales, the thousands of bands playing Friday nights at saloons all over North America, or the 30 billion songs that were downloaded free through peer-to-peer file sharing in 2005. Americans spend more money on music than on sex or prescription drugs. I would say that most Americans qualify as expert music listeners. We have the cognitive capacity to detect wrong notes, to find music we enjoy, to remember hundreds of melodies, and to tap our feet in time with the music - an activity that involves a process of meter extraction so complicated that most computers cannot do it. Why do we listen to music, and why are we willing to spend so much money on music listening? Two concert tickets can easily cost as much as a week's food allowance for a family of four, and one CD costs about the same as a work shirt, 8 loaves of bread, or basic phone service for a month. Understanding why we like music and what draws us to it is a window into the essence of human nature.
To ask questions about a basic, and omnipresent human ability is to implicitly ask questions about evolution. Animals evolved certain physical forms as a response to their environment, and the characteristics that conferred an advantage for mating were passed down to the next generation through the genes.
A subtle point in Darwinian theory is that living organisms - whether plants, viruses, insects, or animals - co-evolved with the physical world. In other words, while all living things are changing in response to the world, the world is also changing in response to them. If one species develops a mechanism to keep away a particular predator, that predator's species is then under evolutionary pressure either to develop a means to overcome that defense or to find another food source. Natural selection is an arms race of physical morphologies changing to catch up with one another.
A relatively new scientific field, evolutionary psychology, extends the notion of evolution from the physical to the realm of the mental. My mentor when I was a student at Stanford University, the cognitive psychologist Roger Shepard, notes that not just our bodies but our minds are the product of millions of years of evolution. Our thought patterns, our predispositions to solve problems in certain ways, our sensory systems - such as the ability to see color (and the particular colors we see) - are all products of evolution. Shepard pushes the point still further: our minds co-evolved with the physical world, changing in response to an ever-changing world. Three of Shepard's post-doctoral students, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, of the University of California at Santa Barbara, and Geoffrey Miller of the University of New Mexico, are among those at the forefront of this new field. Researchers in this field believe that they can learn a lot about human behavior by considering the evolution of the mind. W hat function did music serve humankind as we were evolving and developing? Certainly the music of 50,000 and 100,000 years ago is very different than Beethoven, Van Halen, or Eminem. As our brains have evolved, so has the music we make with them, and the music that we want to hear. Did particular regions and pathways evolve in our brain specifically for making and listening to music?
Contrary to the old, simplistic notion that art and music are processed in the right hemisphere of our brains, with language and mathematics in the left, recent findings from my laboratory and those of my colleagues are showing us that music is distributed throughout the brain. Through studies of people with brain damage we've seen patients who have lost the ability to read a newspaper but can still read music, or individuals who can play the piano but lack the motor coordination to button their own sweater. Music listening, performance and composition engage nearly every area of the brain that we have so far identified, and involve nearly every neural subsystem. Could this fact account for claims that music listening exercises other parts of our minds, that listening to Mozart 20 minutes a day will make us smarter?
The power of music to evoke emotions is harnessed by advertising executives, filmmakers, military commanders, and mothers. Advertisers use music to make a soft drink, beer, running shoe or car seem more hip than their competitors'. Film directors use music to tell us how to feel about scenes that otherwise might be ambiguous, or to augment our feelings at particularly dramatic moments. Think of a typical chase scene in an action film, or the music that might accompany a lone woman climbing a staircase in a dark old mansion: music is being used to manipulate our emotions, andwe tend to accept, if not outright enjoy, the power of music to make us experience these different feelings. Mothers throughout the world, and as far back in time as we can imagine, have used soft singing to soothe their babies to sleep, or to distract them from something that has made them cry.
Many people who love music profess to know nothing about it. I've found that many of my colleagues who study difficult, intricate topics such as neurochemistry or psychopharmacology feel unprepared to deal with research in the neuroscience of music. And who can blame them? Music theorists have an arcane, rarified set of terms and rules that are as obscure as some of the most esoteric domains of mathematics. To the nonmusician, the blobs of ink on a page that we call music notation might just as well be the notations of mathematical set theory. Talk of keys, cadences, modulation, and transposition can be baffling.
Yet every one of my colleagues who feel intimidated by such jargon can tell me the music that he or she likes. My friend Norman White is a world authority on the hippocampus in rats, and how they remember different places they've visited. He is a huge jazz fan, and can talk expertly about his favorite artists. He can instantly tell the difference between Duke Ellington and Count Basie by the sound of the music, and can even tell early from late Louis Armstrong. Norm doesn't have any knowledge about music in the technical sense - he can tell me that he likes a certain song, but he can't tell me what the names of the chords are. He is, however, an expert in knowing what he likes. This is not at all unusual, of course. Many of us have a practical knowledge of things we like, and can communicate our preferences without possessing the technical knowledge of the true expert. I know that I prefer the chocolate cake at one restaurant I often go to over the chocolate cake at my neighborhood coffee shop. But only a chef would be able to analyze the cake - to decompose the taste experience into its elements - by describing the differences in the kind of flour, or the shortening, or the type of chocolate used.
It's a shame that many people are intimidated by the jargon musicians, music theorists, and cognitive scientists throw around. There is specialized vocabulary in every field of inquiry (try to make sense of a full blood analysis report from your doctor). But in the case of music, musical experts and scientists could do a better job of making their work accessible. That is something I tried to accomplish in this book. The unnatural gap that has grown between musical performance and music listening has been paralleled by a gap between those who love music (and love to talk about it) and those who are discovering new things about how it works.
A feeling my students often confide to me is that they love life and its mysteries, and they're afraid that too much education will steal away many of life's simple pleasures-Robert Sapolsky's students have probably confided much the same to him. I've had the same feeling. I remember one muggy, heavy New England summer night with the day's grime clinging to my clothes, my skin, and my hair. I had moved to Boston to attend the Berklee College of Music, which was an honor, but it troubled me. What if I took a scholarly approach to studying music and, in analyzing it, stripped it of its mysteries? What if I became so knowledgeable about music that I no longer took pleasure from it?
I still take as much pleasure from music as I did from that cheap hi-fi through those headphones. The more I learned about music and about science the more fascinating they became, and the more I was able to appreciate people who are really good at them. Like science, music over the years has proved to be an adventure, never experienced exactly the same way twice. It has been a source of continual surprise and satisfaction for me. It turns out science and music aren't such a bad mix.
This book is about the science of music, from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience - the field that is at the intersection of psychology and neurology. I'll discuss some of my own and the latest studies researchers in our field have conducted on music, musical meaning, and musical pleasure. They offer new insights into profound questions. If all of us hear music differently, how can we account for pieces that seem to move so many people - Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, or Don McLean's "Vincent (Starry Starry Night (Vincent)" for example? On the other hand, if we all hear music in the same way, how can we account for wide differences in musical preference - why is it that one man's Mozart is another man's Madonna?
The mind has been opened up in the last few years by the exploding field of neuroscience and the new approaches in psychology due to new brain imaging technologies, drugs able to manipulate neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin, and plain old scientific pursuit. Less well known are t he extraordinary advances we have been able to make in modeling how our neurons network thanks to the continuing revolution in computer technology. We are coming to understand computational systems in our head like never before. Language now seems to be substantially hardwired into our brains. Even consciousness itself is no longer hopelessly shrouded in a mystical fog, but is rather something that emerges from observable physical systems. But no-one until now has taken all this new work together and used it to elucidate what is for me the most beautiful human obsession. Your brain on music is a way to understand the deepest mysteries of human nature. That is why I wrote this book.
By better understanding what music is and where it comes from, we may be able to better understand our motives, fears, desires, memories, and even communication in the broadest sense. Is music listening more like eating when you're hungry and thus satisfying an urge? Or is it more like seeing a beautiful sunset or getting a backrub, and thus triggering sensory pleasure systems in the brain? Why do people seem to get stuck in their musical tastes as they grow older and cease experimenting with new music? This is the story of how brains and music co-evolved - what music can teach us about the brain, what the brain can teach us about music, and what both can teach us about ourselves.
Bibliographic Notes
The following are some of the many articles and books that I consulted in writing this book. The list is by no means complete, but represents those that readers might find the most relevant to the points made in the book. This book was written for the non-specialist and not for my colleagues, and so I have tried to simplify topics without oversimplifying them. A more complete and detailed account of the brain and music can be found in these readings, and in the readings cited in them. Some of these works were written for the specialist researcher, and I have used an asterisk (*) to indicate the more technical readings. Most of the marked entries are primary sources, and a few are graduate-level textbooks.
Because I wrote this book for the general reader, I want to emphasize that there are no new ideas presented in this book, no ideas that have not already been presented in scientific and scholarly journals as listed below. The full details of "your brain on music" are contained in them. In some cases, a particular article was available in more than one source, due to anthologizing, reprinting, etc., and in those cases, I've tried to list that source that will be most easily obtainable for the average reader. For example, a dozen of these articles appeared in a textbook I edited, Foundations of Cognitive Psychology , and I've indicated that as the source to minimize the amount of running around that would otherwise have to be done to find them. Where multiple sources or versions exist for a particular concept, I've generally chosen the newest one (in order to give the reader the most up-to-date views on the subject; in other cases, where an earlier article is considered a "classic" I have included that.
Introduction
Churchland, P. M. 1986. Matter and Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• In the passage on mankind's curiosity having solved many of the greatest scientific mysteries, I have borrowed liberally from the introduction to this excellent and inspiring work on the philosophy of mind.
*Cosmides, L., and J. Tooby. 1989. "Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, Part I. Case Study: A Computational Theory of Social Exchange." Ethology and Sociobiology 10: 51-97.
• An excellent introduction into the field of Evolutionary Psychology by two of its leaders.
*Deaner, R. O., and C. L. Nunn. 1999. How quickly do brains catch up with bodies? A comparative method for detecting evolutionary lag. Proceedings of Biological Sciences 266 (1420):687-694.
• A recent scholarly article on the topic of evolutionary lag, the notion that our bodies and minds are at present equipped to deal with the world and living conditions as they were 50,000 years ago, due to the amount of time it takes for adaptations to become encoded in the human genome.
Levitin, D. J. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy Interview. Grammy 19 (September):42-46.
• Source of the Paul Simon quote about listening for sound.
*Miller, G.F. 2000. Evolution of human music through sexual selection. In The origins of music, edited by N. L. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Another leader in the field of evolutionary psychology, this article discusses many of the ideas that I bring in later, in Chapter 9, and mention only briefly here.
Pareles, J., and P. Romanowski, eds. 1983. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Summit Books.
• Adam and the Ants get 8 column inches plus a photo in this edition, U2 – already well-known with three albums and the hit "New Year's Day" – get only 4 inches, and no photo.
*Pribram, K.H. 1980. Mind, brain, and conscioiusness: the organization of competence and conduct. In The psychobiology of consciousness, edited by J. M. D. Davidson, R.J. New York: Plemun.
*———. 1982. Brain mechanism in music: prolegomena for a theory of the meaning of meaning. In Music, mind, and brain, edited by M. Clynes. New York: Plenum.
• Pribram taught his course from a collection of articles and notes that he had compiled. These were two of the papers that we read.
Sapolsky, R. M. Why Zebra's Don't Get Ulcers. Third ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
• An excellent book and a fun read on the science of stress, and the reasons that modern humans suffer from stress; the idea of "evolutionary lag" that I introduce more fully in Chapter 9 is dealt with very well in this book.
*Shepard, R. N. 1987. Toward A Universal Law Of Generalization For Psychological Science. Science 237 (4820):1317-1323.
*———. 1992. The perceptual organization of colors: an adaptation to regularities of the terrestrial world? In The adapted mind: evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, edited by J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides and J. Tooby. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———. 1995. Mental Universals: Toward a Twenty-first Century Science of Mind. In The Science of the Mind: 2001 and Beyond, edited by R. L. Solso and D. W. Massaro. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Three papers by Shepard in which he discusses the evolution of mind.
Tooby, J., and L. Cosmides. 2002. Toward mapping the evolved functional organization of mind and brain. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Another paper by these two leaders in Evolutionary Psychology, perhaps the more general of the two papers I've listed here.
Chapter 1
*Balzano, G.J. 1986. What are musical pitch and timbre? Music Perception 3 (3):297-314.
• A scientific article on the issues involved in pitch and timbre research.
Berkeley, G. 1734/2004. A treatise concerning the principles of human knowledge. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing Company.
• The famous question – if a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound? – was first posed by the theologian and philosopher George Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, in this work.
*Boulanger, R. 2000. The C-Sound book: Perspectives in software synthesis, sound design, signal processing, and programming. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.
• An introduction to the most widely used sofware sound synthesis program/system. The best book I know of for people who want to learn to program computers to make music and create timbres of their own choosing.
Burns, E.M. 1999. Intervals, Scales, and Tuning. In Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On the origin of scales, relationships among tones, nature of intervals and scales.
*Chowning, J. 1973. The synthesis of complex audio spectra by means of frequency modulation. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21:526-534.
• FM synthesis, as eventually manifested in the Yamaha DX synthesizers, was first described in this professional journal.
Clayson, A. 2002. Edgard Varèse. London: Sanctuary Publishing, Ltd.
• Source of the quotation "music is organized sound."
Dennett, Daniel C. 2005. Show me the science. The New York Times, August 28.
• Source of the quotation "heat is not made of tiny hot things."
Doyle, P. 2005. Echo & Reverb: Fabricating space in popular music recording, 1900 - 1960. Middletown, CT.
• An expansive, scholarly survey of the recording industry's fascination with space and creating artificial ambiences.
Dwyer, T. 1971. Composing with tape recorders: Musique concrète. New York: Oxford University Press.
• For background information on the musique concrète of Schaeffer, Dhomon, Normandeau and others.
*Grey, J. M. 1975. An exploration of musical timbre using computer-based techniques for analysis, synthesis and perceptual scaling. Ph.D. Thesis, Music, Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
• The most influential paper on modern approaches to the study of timbre.
*Janata, P. 1997. Electrophysiological studies of auditory contexts, Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, University of Oregon.
• Contains the experiments showing that the inferior colliculus of the barn owl restores the missing fundamental
*Krumhansl, C. L. 1990. Cognitive foundations of musical pitch. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———. 1991. Music psychology: Tonal structures in perception and memory. Annual Review of Psychology 42:277-303.
*———. 2000. Rhythm and pitch in music cognition. Psychological Bulletin 126 (1):159-179.
*———. 2002. Music: A link between cognition and emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11 (2):45-50.
• Krumhansl is one of the leading scientists working in music perception and cognition; these articles, and the monograph, provide foundations of the field, and in particular, the notion of tonal hierarchies, the dimensionality of pitch, and the mental representation of pitch.
*Kubovy, M. 1981. Integral and separable dimensions and the theory of indispensible attributes. In Perceptual organization, edited by M. Kubovy and J. Pomerantz. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Source for the notion of separable dimensions in music.
Levitin, D. J. 2002. Memory for musical attributes. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.
• Source for the listing of eight different perceptual attributes of a sound.
*McAdams, S., J.W. Beauchamp, and S. Meneguzzi. 1999. Discrimination of musical instrument sounds resynthesized with simplified spectrotemporal parameters. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105 (2):882-897.
McAdams, S., and E. Bigand. 1993. Introduction to auditory cognition. In Thinking in sound: The cognitive psychology of audition, edited by S. McAdams and E. Bigand. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*McAdams, S., and J. Cunible. 1992. Perception of timbral analogies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 336:383-389.
*McAdams, S., S. Winsberg, S. Donnadieu, and G. De Soete. 1995. Perceptual scaling of synthesized musical timbres: Common dimensions, specificities, and latent subject classes. Psychological Research/Psychologische Forschung 58 (3):177-192.
• McAdams is the leading researcher in the world studying timbre, and these four papers are provide an overview of what we currently know about timbre perception.
Newton, I. 1730/1952. Opticks: or, A treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light. New York: Dover.
• Source for Newton's observation that light waves are not themselves colored.
*Oxenham, A.J., J.G.W. Bernstein, and H. Penagos. 2004. Correct tonotopic representation is necessary for complex pitch perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:1421-1425.
• On tonotopic representations of pitch in the auditory system.
Palmer, S.E. 2000. Vision: From photons to phenomenology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• An excellent introduction to cognitive science and vision science, at the undergraduate level. Full disclosure: Palmer and I are collaborators, and I made some contributions to this book. Source for the different attributes of visual stimuli.
Pierce, J. R. 1992. The science of musical sound. Revised ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
• Excellent source for the educated layperson who wants to understand the physics of sound, overtones, scales, etc. Full disclosure: Pierce was my teacher and friend when he was alive.
Rossing, T. D. 1990. The Science of Sound. Second ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
• Another excellent source for the physics of sound, overtones, scales, and so on, appropriate for undergraduates.
Schaeffer, Pierre. 1967. La musique concrète. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Frances.
———. 1968. Traité des objets musicaux. Paris: Le Seuil.
• The principles of musique concrète are introduced in the first work, and Schaeffer's masterpiece on the theory of sound in the second. Unfortunately, no English translation yet exists.
Schmeling, P. 2005. Berklee Music Theory Book 1. Boston: Berklee Press.
• I learned music theory at Berklee College, and this is the first volume in their set, suitable for self-teaching, this covers all the basics.
*Schroeder, M. R. 1962. Natural sounding artificial reverberation. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 10 (3):219-233.
• The seminal article on the creation of artificial reverberation.
Scorsese, Martin. 2005. No Direction Home. USA: Paramount.
• Source of the reports of Bob Dylan being booed at the Newport Folk Festival.
Sethares, W. A. 1997. Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale. London, Great Britain: Springer.
• A rigorous introduction to the physics of music and musical sounds.
*Shamma, S., and D. Klein. 2000. The case of the missing pitch templates: How harmonic templates emerge in the early auditory system. Journal Of The Acoustical Society Of America 107 (5):2631-2644.
*Shamma, S.A. 2004. Topographic organization is essential for pitch perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:1114-1115.
• On tonotopic representations of pitch in the auditory system.
*Smith, J. O. III. 1992. Physical modeling using digital waveguides. Computer Music Journal 16 (4):74-91.
• The article that introduced wave guide synthesis.
Surmani, A., K. F. Surmani, and M. Manus. 2004. Essentials of music theory: A complete self-study course for all musicians. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Company.
• Another excellent self-teaching guide to music theory.
Taylor, C. 1992. Exploring Music: The Science and Technology of Tones and Tunes. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing.
• Another excellent college-level text on the physics of sound.
Trehub
*Västfjäll, D., P. Larsson, and M. Kleiner. 2002. Emotional and auditory virtual environments: Affect-based judgments of music reproduced with virtual reverberation times. CyberPsychology & Behavior 5 (1):19-32.
• A recent scholarly article on the effect of reverberation on emotional response.
Chapter 2
*Bregman, A. S. 1990. Auditory Scene Analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• The definitive work on general auditory grouping principles.
Clarke, E. F. 1999. Rhythm and timing in music. In The psychology of music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• An undergraduate level article on the psychology of time perception in music, and the source for the Eric Clarke quote
Elias, L.J., and D.M. Saucier. 2006. Neuropsychology: clinical and experimental foundations. Boston: Pearson.
• Textbook for introducing fundamental concepts of neuroanatomy and the functions of different brain regions
*Fishman, Y. I., Reser, D. H., Arezzo, J. C., & Steinschneider, M. 2000. Complex tone processing in primary auditory cortex of the awake monkey. I. Neural ensemble correlates of roughness. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:235-246.
• On the physiological basis of consonance and dissonance perception
Gilmore, Mikal. 2005. Lennon lives forever: Twenty-five years after his death, his music and message endure. Rolling Stone, December 15.
• Source of the John Lennon quote
Helmholtz, H. L. F. 1885/1954. On the Sensations of Tone. Second revised ed. New York: Dover.
• Unconscious inference
Lerdahl, F, and R. Jackendoff. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• The most influential statement of auditory grouping principles in music.
*Levitin, D. J., and P. R. Cook. 1996. Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Perception and Psychophysics 58:927-935.
• This is the article mentioned in the text, in which Cook and I asked people to sing their favorite rock songs, and they reproduced the tempo with very high accuracy.
Luce, R. D. 1993. Sound and Hearing: A Conceptual Introduction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
• Textbook on the ear and hearing, including physiology of the ear, loudness, pitch perception, etc.
*Mesulam, M.-M. 1985. Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company.
• Advanced, graduate textbook for introducing fundamental concepts of neuroanatomy and the functions of different brain regions
Moore, B. C. J. 1982. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. Second ed. London: Academic Press.
———. 2003. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. Fifth ed. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
•Textbooks on the ear and hearing, including physiology of the ear, loudness, pitch perception, etc.
Palmer, S. E. 2002. Organizing objects and scenes. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the Gestalt principles of visual grouping
Stevens, S. S., and F. Warshofsky. 1965. Sound and Hearing. Edited by R. Dubos, Margenau, H., Snow, C. P., LIFE Science Library. New York: Time Incorporated.
• A good introduction to the principles of hearing and auditory perception for the general reader.
*Tramo, M. J., P. A. Cariani, B. Delgutte, and L. D. Braida. 2003. Neurobiology of harmony perception. In The cognitive neuroscience of music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. New York: Oxford University Press.
• On the physiological basis of consonance and dissonance perception
*von Ehrenfels, C. 1890/1988. On 'Gestalt Qualities'. In Foundations of Gestalt Theory, edited by B. Smith. Munich: Philosophia Verlag.
• On the founding of Gestalt psychology and the Gestalt psychologists' interest in melody
Yost, W. A. 1994. Fundamentals of Hearing: An Introduction. Third ed. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
• Textbook on hearing, pitch and loudness perception.
Zimbardo, P. G., and R. J. Gerrig. 2002. Perception. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the Gestalt principles of grouping.
Chapter 3
Bregman, A. S. 1990. Auditory Scene Analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On streaming by timbre and other auditory grouping principles. My analogy about the eardrum as a pillowcase stretched over a bucket borrows liberally from a different analogy Bregman proposes in this book
*Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton.
• On the innateness of a language capacity in the human brain
Crick, F. H. C. 1995. The astonishing hypothesis: The scientific search for the soul. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.
• On reductionism, the idea that all of human behavior can be explained by the activity of the brain and neurons
Dennett, D. C. 1991. Consciousness Explained. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
• On the illusions of conscious experience and brains updating information
———. 2002. Can machines think? In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
———. 2002. Where Am I? In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• These two articles address foundatoinal issues of the brain as computer and the philosophical idea of functionalism; "Can machines think" also summarizes the Turing test for intelligence, and its strengths and weaknesses.7
Finger, Stanley. 2001. Origins of neuroscience: A history of explorations into brain function. New York: Oxford University Press.
• On the Phineas Gage incident
*Friston, K. J. 2005. Models of brain function in neuroimaging. Annual Review Of Psychology 56:57-87.
• A technical overview on research methods for the analysis of brain imaging data by one of the inventors of SPM, a widely used statistical package for fMRI data.
Gazzaniga, M. S., R. B. Ivry, and G. Mangun. 1998. Cognitive neuroscience. New York: Norton.
• Functional divisions of the brain; basic divisions into lobes, major anatomical landmarks; undergraduate text
Gertz, S. D., and R. Tadmor. 1996. Liebman's Neuroanatomy Made Easy and Understandable. Fifth ed. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
• An introduction to neuroanatomy and major brain regions
Gregory, R. L. 1986. Odd perceptions. London: Routledge.
• On perception as inference
*Griffiths, T. D., S. Uppenkamp, I. Johnsrude, O. Josephs, and R. D. Patterson. 2001. Encoding of the temporal regularity of sound in the human brainstem. Nature Neuroscience 4 (6):633-637.
*Griffiths, T.D., and J.D. Warren. 2002. The planum temporale as a computational hub. Trends in Neuroscience 25 (7):348-353.
• Recent work on sound processing in the brain from Griffiths, one of the most esteemed researchers of the current generation of brain scientists studying auditory processes.
*Hickok, G., B. Buchsbaum, C. Humphries, and T. Muftuler. 2003. Auditory-motor interaction revealed by fMRI: Speech, music, and working memory in area Spt. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (5):673-682.
• A primary source for music activation in a brain region at the posterior Sylvian fissure at the parietal-temporal boundary.
*Janata, P., J. L. Birk, J. D. Van Horn, M. Leman, B. Tillmann, and J. J. Bharucha. 2002. The cortical topography of tonal structures underlying Western music. Science 298:2167-2170.
*Janata, P., and S.T. Grafton. 2003. Swinging in the brain: Shared neural substrates for behaviors related to sequencing and music. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):682-687.
*Johnsrude, I.S., V. B. Penhune, and R. J. Zatorre. 2000. Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 123:155-163.
*Knosche, T.R., C. Neuhaus, J. Haueisen, K. Alter, B. Maess, O. Witte, and A.D. Friederici. 2005. Perception of phrase structure in music. Human Brain Mapping 24 (4):259-273.
*Koelsch, S., E. Kasper, d. Sammler, K. Schulze, T. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2004. Music, language and meaning: brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):302-307.
*Koelsch, S., E. Schröger, and T. C. Gunter. 2002. Music matters: Preattentive musicality of the human brain. Psychophysiology 39 (1):38-48.
*Kuriki, S., N. Isahai, T. Hasimoto, F. Takeuchi, and Y. Hirata. 2000. Music and language: Brain activities in processing melody and words. Paper read at 12th International Conference on Biomagnetism.
• Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Levitin, D. J. 1996. High-fidelity music: Imagine listening from inside the guitar. The New York Times, December 15.
———. 1996. The modern art of studio recording. Audio, September, 46-52.
• on modern recording techniques and he illusions they create
———. 2002. Experimental design in psychological research. In Foundations of cognitive psychology: Core readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On experimental design and what is a "good" experiment
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in "language" areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142-2152.
• The first research article using fMRI to show that temporal structure and temporal coherence in music is processed in the same brain region that does so for spoken and signed languages.
*McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The Appeal of Parallel Distributed Processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the brain as a parallel processing machine.
Palmer, S. 2002. Visual awareness. In Foundations of cogntiive psychology: Core readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the philosophical foundations of modern cognitive science, dualism and materialism.
*Parsons, L. M. 2001. Exploring the functional neuroanatomy of music performance, perception, and comprehension. In Biological Foundations Of Music.
*Patel, A. D., and E. Balaban. 2004. Human auditory cortical dynamics during perception of long acoustic sequences: Phase tracking of carrier frequency by the auditory steady-state response. Cerebral Cortex 14 (1):35-46.
*Patel, A.D. 2003. Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):674-681.
*Patel, A.D., and E. Balaban. 2000. Temporal patterns of human cortical activity reflect tone sequence structure. Nature 404:80-84.
*Peretz, I. 2000. Music cognition in the brain of the majority: Autonomy and fractionation of the music recognition system. In The handbook of cognitive neuropsychology, edited by B. Rapp. Hove: U.K.: Psychology Press.
*Peretz, I. 2000. Music perception and recognition. In The handbook of cognitive neuropsychology, edited by B. Rapp. Hove: U.K.: Psychology Press.
*Peretz, I., and M. Coltheart. 2003. Modularity of music processing. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):688-691.
*Peretz, I., and L. Gagnon. 1999. Dissociation between recognition and emotional judgements for melodies. Neurocase 5:21-30.
*Peretz, I., and R. J. Zatorre, eds. 2003. The cognitive neuroscience of music. New York: Oxford.
• Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Pinker, S. 1997. How the mind works. New York: W. W. Norton.
• on music as an evolutionary accident
*Posner, M. I. 1980. Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal Of Experimental Psychology 32:3-25.
• On the Posner Cueing Paradigm
Posner, M. I. & Levitin, D. J. (1997). Imaging the future. In The science of the mind: The 21st century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
• A more complete explanation of the bias that Posner and I have against simple "mental cartography" for its own sake.
Ramachandran, V. S. 2004. A brief tour of human consciousness: From impostor poodles to purple numbers. New York: Pi Press.
• On consciousness and our naive intuitions about it
*Rock, I. 1983. The logic of perception. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
• On perception as a logical process and as constructive
*Schmahmann, J. D., ed. 1997. The cerebellum and cognition. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On the cerebellum's role in emotional regulation
Searle, J. R. 2002. Minds, Brains, and Programs. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the brain as a computer; this is one of the most discussed, argued and cited articles in modern philosophy of mind.
*Sergent, J. 1993. Mapping the musician brain. Human Brain Mapping 1:20-38.
• One of the first neuroimaging reports of music and the brain, still widely cited and referred to.
Shepard, R. N. 1990. Mind sights: Original Visual Illusions, Ambiguities, and other Anomalies, with a Commentary on the Play of Mind in Perception and Art. New York: W. H. Freeman.
• Source of the "Turning the Tables" illusion.
*Steinke, W.R., and L.L. Cuddy. 2001. Dissociations amoung functional subsystems governing melody recognition after right hemisphere damage. Cognitive Neuropsychology 18 (5):411-437.
*Tillmann, B., P. Janata, and J. J. Bharucha. 2003. Activation of the inferior frontal cortex in musical priming. Cognitive Brain Research 16:145-161.
• Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
*Warren, R. M. 1970. Perceptual restoration of missing speech sounds. Science, January 23, 392-393.
• Source of the example of auditory "filling in" or perceptual completion.
Weinberger, N.M. 2004. Music and the Brain. Scientific American (November 2004):89-95.
*Zatorre, R. J., and P. Belin. 2001. Spectral and temporal processing in human auditory cortex. Cerebral Cortex 11:946-953.
*Zatorre, R. J., P. Belin, and V. B. Penhune. 2002. Structure and function of auditory cortex: Music and speech. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (1):37-46.
• Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Chapter 4
*Bartlett. 1932. Remembering. London: Cambridge University Press.
• On schemas
*Bavelier, D., C. Brozinsky, A. Tomann, T. Mitchell, H. Neville, and G. Liu. 2001. Impact of early deafness and early exposure to sign language on the cerebral organization for motion processing. The Journal of Neuroscience 21 (22):8931-8942.
*Bavelier, D., D. P. Corina, and H. J. Neville. 1998. Brain and language: A perspective from Sign language. Neuron 21:275-278.
• On the neuroanatomy of sign language
*Bever, T. G., and Chiarell.Rj. 1974. Cerebral Dominance In Musicians And Nonmusicians. Science 185 (4150):537-539.
• A seminal paper on hemispheric specialization for music
*Bharucha, J. J. 1987. Music Cognition and Perceptual Facilitation - a Connectionist Framework. Music Perception 5 (1):1-30.
*———. 1991. Pitch, harmony, and neural nets: A psychological perspective. In Music and Connectionism, edited by P. M. Todd and D. G. Loy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
*Bharucha, J. J., and P. M. Todd. 1989. Modeling The Perception Of Tonal Structure With Neural Nets. Computer Music Journal 13 (4):44-53.
*Bharucha, J.J. 1992. Tonality and learnability. In Cognitive bases of musical communication, edited by M. R. Jones and S. Holleran. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
• On musical schemas
*Binder, J., and C. J. Price. 2001. Functional neuroimaging of language. In Handbook of functional neuroimaging of cognition, edited by A. Cabeza and A. Kingston.
*Binder, J. R., E. Liebenthal, E. T. Possing, D. A. Medler, and B. D. Ward. 2004. Neural correlates of sensory and decision processes in auditory object identification. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):295-301.
*Bookheimer, S. Y. 2002. Functional MRI of language: New approaches to understanding the cortical organization of semantic processing. Annual Review of Neuroscience 25:151-188.
• On the functional neuroanatomy of speech.
Cook, P. R. 2005. The deceptive cadence as a parlor trick. Princeton, NJ, Montreal, QC, November 30.
• Personal communication from Perry Cook, who described the deceptive cadence this way in an email to me.
*Cowan, W. M., T. C. Südhof, and C. F. Stevens, eds. 2001. Synapses. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• In-depth information on synapses, the synaptic cleft, and synaptic transmission
*Dibben, N. 1999. The perception of structural stability in atonal music: the influence of salience, stability, horizontal motion, pitch comonality and dissonance. Music Perception 16 (3):265-294.
• On atonal music, such as that by Schönburg described in this chapter.
*Franceries, X., B. Doyon, N. Chauveau, B. Rigaud, P. Celsis, and J-P. Morucci. 2003. Solution of Poisson's equation in a volume conductor using resistor mesh models: Application to event related potential imaging. Journal of Applied Physics 93 (6):3578-3588.
• On the inverse Poisson problem of localization with EEG.
Fromkin, V., and R. Rodman. 1993. An Introduction to Language. Fifth ed. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
• On the basics of psycholinguistics, phonemes, word formation
*Gazzaniga, M. S. 2000. The New Cognitive Neurosciences. Second ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Foundations of neuroscience
Gernsbacher, M.A., and M.P. Kaschak. 2003. Neuroimaging studies of language production and comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology 54:91-114.
• A recent review of studies of the neuroanatomical basis for language.
*Hickok, G., B. Buchsbaum, C. Humphries, and T. Muftuler. 2003. Auditory-motor interaction revealed by fMRI: Speech, music, and working memory in area Spt. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (5):673-682.
*Hickok, G., and Poeppel. 2000. Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (4):131-138.
• On the neuroanatomical basis for speech and music.
Holland, B. 1991. A man who sees what others hear. The New York Times, November 19, 1981.
• An article about Arthur Lintgen, the man who can read record grooves. He can only read them for music that he knows, and only for classical music post-Beethoven.
*Huettel, S. A., A. W. Song, and G. McCarthy. 2003. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Sunderland, Massachussetts, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
• On the theory behind fMRI.
*Ivry, R. B., and L. C. Robertson. 1997. The two sides of perception. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On hemispheric specialization
*Johnsrude, I.S., V. B. Penhune, and R. J. Zatorre. 2000. Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 123:155-163.
*Johnsrude, I.S., R. J. Zatorre, B. A. Milner, and A. C. Evans. 1997. Left-hemisphere specialization for the processing of acoustic transients. NeuroReport 8:1761-1765.
• On the neuroanatomy of speech and music.
*Kandel, E. R., J. H. Schwartz, and T. M. Jessell. 2000. Principles of neural science. Fourth ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Foundations of neuroscience, co-written by Nobel Laureate Kandel, this is a widely used text in medical schools and graduate neuroscience programs.
*Knosche, T.R., C. Neuhaus, J. Haueisen, K. Alter, B. Maess, O. Witte, and A.D. Friederici. 2005. Perception of phrase structure in music. Human Brain Mapping 24 (4):259-273.
*Koelsch, S., T. C. Gunter, D. Y. v. Cramon, S. Zysset, G. Lohmann, and A. D. Friederici. 2002. Bach speaks: A cortical "language-network" serves the processing of music. NeuroImage 17:956-966.
*Koelsch, S., E. Kasper, d. Sammler, K. Schulze, T. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2004. Music, language and meaning: brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):302-307.
*Koelsch, S., B. Maess, and A. D. Friederici. 2000. Musical syntax is processed in the area of Broca: an MEG study. NeuroImage 11 (5):56.
• Articles on musical structure by Koelsch, Friederici and their colleagues
Kosslyn, S. M., and O. Koenig. 1992. Wet mind: The new cognitive neuroscience. New York: Free Press.
• A general audience's introduction to cognitive neuroscience
*Krumhansl, C. L. 1990. Cognitive foundations of musical pitch. New York: Oxford University Press.
• On the dimensionality of pitch
*Lerdahl, F. 1989. Atonal prolongational structure. Contemporary Music Review 3 (2).
• On atonal music, such as that of Schönburg
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in "language" areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142-2152.
*———. 2005. The neural locus of temporal structure and expectancies in music: Evidence from functional neuroimaging at 3 Tesla. Music Perception 22 (3):563-575.
• On the neuroanatomy of musical structure
*Maess, B., S. Koelsch, T. C. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2001. Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: An MEG study. Nature Neuroscience 4 (5):540-545.
• On the neuroanatomy of musical structure
*Marin, O. S. M. 1982. Neurological aspects of music perception and performance. In The psychology of music, edited by D. Deutsch. New York: Academic Press.
* On loss of musical function due to lesions
* Martin, R.C. 2003. Language processing: Functional organization and neuroanatomical basis. Annual Review of Psychology 54:55-89.
• On the neuroanatomy of speech perception
McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The Appeal of Parallel Distributed Processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On schemas
Meyer, L. B. 2001. Music and emotion: distinctions and uncertainties. In Music and emotion: Theory and research, edited by P. N. Juslin and J. A. Sloboda. Oxford, UK and New York: Oxford University Press.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1956. Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 1994. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: patterns and predictions in twentieth-century culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• On musical style, repetition, gap-fill, and expectations
*Milner, B. 1962. Laterality effects in audition. In Interhemispheric effects and cerebral dominance, edited by V. Mountcastle. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
• On laterality in hearing.
*Narmour, E. 1992. The analysis and cognition of melodic complexity: the implication-realization model. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*———. 1999. Hierarchical expectation and musical style. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On musical style, repetition, gap-fill, and expectations
*Niedermeyer, E., and F. L. Da Silva. 2005. Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields. Fifth ed. Philadephia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
• An introduction to EEG (advanced, technical, not for the faint-of-heart)
*Panksepp, J., ed. 2002. Textbook of biological psychiatry. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• On SSRIs, seratonin, dopamine, and neurochemistry.
*Patel, A.D. 2003. Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):674-681.
• On the neuroanatomy of musical structure, this paper introduces the SSIRH.
*Penhune, V. B., R. J. Zatorre, J. D. MacDonald, and A. C. Evans. 1996. Interhemispheric anatomical differences in human primary auditory cortex: Probabilistic mapping and volume measurement from magnetic resonance scans. Cerebral Cortex 6:661-672.
*Peretz, I., R. Kolinsky, M. J. Tramo, R. Labrecque, C. Hublet, G. Demeurisse, and S. Belleville. 1994. Functional dissociations following bilateral lesions of auditory cortex. Brain 117:1283-1301.
*Perry, D.W., R. J. Zatorre, M. Petrides, B. Alivisatos, E. Meyer, and A. C. Evans. 1999. Localization fo cerebral activity during simple singing. NeuroReport 10:3979-3984.
• On the neuroanatomy of music processing.
*Petitto, L. A., R. J. Zatorre, K. Gauna, E. J. Nikelski, D. Dostie, and A. C. Evans. 2000. Speech-like cerebral activity in profoundly deaf people processing signed languages: Implications for the neural basis of human language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (25):13961-13966.
• On the neuroanatomy of sign language.
Posner, M. I. 1973. Cognition: An introduction. Edited by J. L. E. Bourne and L. Berkowitz. First ed, Basic Psychological Concepts Series. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.
———. 1986. Chronometric explorations of mind: the third Paul M. Fitts lectures, delivered at the University of Michigan, September 1976. New York: Oxford University Press.
• On mental codes
Posner, M. I., and M. E. Raichle. 1994. Images of Mind. New York: Scientific American Library.
• A general-reader introduction to neuroimaging.
Rosen, C. 1975. Arnold Schoenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• On the composer, atonal and 12-tone music
*Russell, G. S., K. J. Eriksen, P. Poolman, P. Luu, and D. Tucker. 2005. Geodesic photogrammetry for localizing sensor positions in dense-array EEG. Clinical Neuropsychology 116:1130-1140.
• On the inverse Poisson problem in EEG localization.
Samson, S., and R. J. Zatorre. 1991. Recognition memory for text and melody of songs after unilateral temporal lobe lesion: Evidence for dual encoding. JEP: LMC 17 (4):793-804.
———. 1994. Contribution of the right temporal lobe to musical timbre discrimination. Neuropsychologia 32:231-240.
• Neuroanatomy of music and speech perception.
Schank, R. C., and R. P. Abelson. 1977. Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Seminal work on schemas.
Schulz, C. M. 2000. Peanuts Treasury. New York: MetroBooks.
• The metaphor that I use of "Lucy waiting for Charlie Brown" comes from the popular comic strip Peanuts.
*Shepard, R. N. 1964. Circularity In Judgments Of Relative Pitch. Journal Of The Acoustical Society Of America 36 (12):2346-&.
*———. 1978. The double helix of musical pitch. In, edited by W. K. Estes. Erlbaum.
*———. 1982. Geometrical approximations to the structure of musical pitch. Psychological Review 89 (4):305-333.
*———. 1982. Structural representations of musical pitch. In Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On the dimensionality of pitch.
Squire, L. R., F. E. Bloom, S. K. McConnell, J. L. Roberts, N. C. Spitzer, and M. J. Zigmond, eds. 2003. Fundamental neuroscience. Second ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
• Basic neuroscience text.
*Temple, E., R. A. Poldrack, A. Protopapas, S. S. Nagarajan, T. Salz, P. Tallal, M. M. Merzenich, and J. D. E. Gabrieli. 2000. Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: Evidence from functional MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (25):13907-13912.
• Functional neuroanatomy of speech.
*Tramo, M. J., J. J. Bharucha, and F. E. Musiek. 1990. Music perception and cognition following bilateral lesions of auditory cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2:195-212.
*Zatorre, R. J. 1985. Discrimination and recognition of tonal melodies after unilateral cerebral excisions. Neuropsychologia 23 (1):31-41.
*———. 1998. Functional specialization of human auditory cortex for musical processing. Brain 121 (Part 10):1817-1818.
*Zatorre, R. J., P. Belin, and V. B. Penhune. 2002. Structure and function of auditory cortex: Music and speech. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (1):37-46.
*Zatorre, R. J., A. C. Evans, E. Meyer, and A. Gjedde. 1992. Lateralization of phonetic and pitch discrimination in speech processing. Science 256 (5058):846-849.
*Zatorre, R. J., and S. Samson. 1991. Role of the right temporal neocortex in retention of pitch in auditory short-term memory. Brain (114):2403-2417.
• Studies of the neuroanatomy of speech and music, and of the effect of lesions.
Chapter 7
Baltar, M. 2004. Seeking the key to music. Science 306:1120-1122.
• An overview of recent work on the evolutionary basis of music.
Chapter 5
Dowling: recognition in spite of transformations
•Bjork, E. L., and R. A. Bjork, eds. 1996. Memory, Handbook of perception and cognition 2nd edition. San Diego: Academic Press.
• General text on memory for the researcher.
Cook, P. R., ed. 1999. Music, cognition, and computerized sound: an introduction to psychoacoustics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• This book consists of the lectures that I attended as an undergraduate in the course I mention, taught by Pierce, Chowning, Mathews, Shepard, and others.
* Dannenberg, R. B., B. Thom, and D. Watson. 1997. A machine learning approach to musical style recognition. Paper read at International Computer Music Conference, September. Thessoloniki, Greece.
• A source article about music fingerprinting.
Dowling, W. J., and D. L. Harwood. 1986. Music Cognition. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On the recognition of melodies in spite of transformations.
Gazzaniga, M. S., R. B. Ivry, and G. R. Mangun. 1998. Cognitive neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Contains a summary of Gazzaniga's split-brain studies.
*Goldinger, S. D. 1996. Words and voices: Episodic traces in spoken word identification and recognition memory. JEP:LMC 22 (5):1166-1183.
*———. 1998. Echoes of echoes? An episodic theory of lexical access. Psychological Review 105 (2):251-279.
• Source articles on multiple-trace memory theory
Guenther, R. K. 2002. Memory. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• An overview of the record-keeping vs. constructivist theories of memory
•Haitsma, J., and T. Kalker. 2003. A highly robust audio fingerprinting system with an efficient search strategy. Journal of New Music Research 32 (2):211-221.
• Another source article on audio fingerprinting.
*Halpern, A. R. 1988. Mental scanning in auditory imagery for songs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 143:434-443.
• Source for the discussion in this chapter about the ability to scan music in our heads
*———. 1989. Memory for the absolute pitch of familiar songs. Memory and Cognition 17 5:572-581.
• This article was the inspiration for my 1994 study.
*Heider, E. R. 1972. Universals In Color Naming And Memory. Journal Of Experimental Psychology 93 (1):10-20.
• Under Eleanor Rosch's married name, a foundational work on categorization
*Hintzman, D. H. 1986. "Schema abstraction" in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 93 (4):411-428.
• Hintzman's MINERVA model is discussed in the context of multiple-trace memory models
*Hintzman, D. L., R. A. Block, and N. R. Inskeep. 1972. Memory for mode of input. Journal Of Verbal Learning And Verbal Behavior 11:741-749.
• Source for the study of fonts I discuss
*Ishai, A., L.G. Ungerleider, and J.V. Haxby. 2000. Distributed neural systems for the generatin of visual images. Neuron 28:979-990.
• Source for the work on categorical separation in the brain
*Janata, P. 1997. Electrophysiological studies of auditory contexts, Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, University of Oregon.
• This contains the report of imagining a piece of music bearing a nearly identical EEG signature to actually hearing a piece of music.
*Levitin, D. J. 1994. Absolute memory for musical pitch: Evidence from the production of learned melodies. Perception and Psychophysics 56 (4):414-423.
• This is the source article reporting my study of people singing their favorite rock and pop songs at or near the correct key
*———. 1999. Absolute pitch: Self-reference and human memory. International Journal of Computing Anticipatory Systems (in press).
• An overview of absolute pitch research.
*———. 1999. Memory for musical attributes. In Music, Cognition and Computerized Sound: An Introduction to Psychoacoustics, edited by P. R. Cook. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.
• Description of my study with tuning forks and memory for pitch.
———. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy Interview. Grammy, September, 42-46.
• Source of the Paul Simon comment about listening for timbres.
*Levitin, D. J., and P. R. Cook. 1996. Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Perception and Psychophysics 58:927-935.
• Source of my study on memory for the tempo of a song
*Levitin, D. J., and S. E. Rogers. 2005. Pitch Perception: Coding, Categories, and Controversies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (1):26-33.
• Review of absolute pitch research
*Levitin, D. J., and R. J. Zatorre. 2003. On the nature of early training and absolute pitch: A reply to Brown, Sachs, Cammuso and Foldstein. Music Perception 21 (1):105-110.
• A technical note about problems with absolute pitch research
Loftus, E. 1979/1996. Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Source of the experiments on memory distortions
Luria, A.R. 1968. The mind of a mnemonist. New York: Basic Books.
• Source of the story about the patient with hypermnesia
McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The Appeal of Parallel Distributed Processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Seminal article on parallel distributed processing (PDP) models, otherwise known as "neural networks," simulations of brain activity in a computer
*McNab, R. J., L. A. Smith, I. H. Witten, C. L. Henderson, and S. J. Cunningham. 1996. Towards the digital music library: tune retrieval from acoustic input. Proceedings of the First ACM international conference on digital libraries:11-18.
• Music fingerprinting overview.
*Parkin, A. J. 1993. Memory: Phenomena, Experiment and Theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
• Textbook on memory.
*Peretz, I., and R. J. Zatorre. 2005. Brain organization for music processing. Annual Review of Psychology 56:89-114.
• Review of neuroanatomical foundations of music perception.
*Pope, S. T., F. Holm, and A. Kouznetsov. 2004. Feature extraction and database design for music software. Paper read at International Computer Music Conference, at Miami.
• On music fingerprinting.
*Posner, M. I., and S. W. Keele. 1968. On the genesis of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology 77:353-363.
*———. 1970. Retention of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology 83:304-308.
• Source for the experiments described that showed prototypes might be stored in memory
*Rosch, E. 1977. Human categorization. In Advances in crosscultural psychology, edited by N. Warren. London: Academic Press.
*———. 1978. Principles of categorization. In Cognition and Categorization, edited by E. Rosch and B. B. Lloyd. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Rosch, E., and C. B. Mervis. 1975. Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology 7:573-605.
*Rosch, E., C. B. Mervis, W.D. Gray, D.M. Johnson, and P. Boyes-Braem. 1976. Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology 8:382-439.
• Source articles on Rosch's prototype theory.
*Schellenberg, E. G., P. Iverson, and M. C. McKinnon. 1999. Name that tune: Identifying familiar recordings from brief excerpts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 6 (4):641-646.
• Source for the study described of people naming songs based on timbral cues.
Smith, E. E., and D. L. Medin. 1981. Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Smith, E., and D. L. Medin. 2002. The Exemplar View. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the exemplar view, as an alternative to Rosch's prototype theory.
*Squire, L. R. 1987. Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Textbook on memory.
*Takeuchi, A. H., and S. H. Hulse. 1993. Absolute pitch. Psychological Bulletin 113 (2):345-361.
*Ward, W. D. 1999. Absolute Pitch. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• Overviews of absolute pitch.
*White, B. W. 1960. Recognition of distorted melodies. American Journal of Psychology 73:100-107.
• Source for the experiments on how music can be recognized under transposition and other transformations.
Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical Investigations. New York: Macmillan.
• Source for Wittgenstein's writings about "what is a game?" and family resemblance.
Chapter 6
* Desain, P., and H. Honing. 1999. Computational models of beat induction: The rule-based approach. Journal of New Music Research 28 (1):29-42.
• This paper discusses some of the algorithms the authors used in the foot-tapping show I wrote about.
*Aitkin, L. M., and J. Boyd. 1978. Acoustic Input to Lateral Pontine Nuclei. Hearing Research 1 (1):67-77.
• Physiology of the auditory pathway, low-level.
*Barnes, R., and M.R. Jones. 2000. Expectancy, Attention, and Time. Cognitive Psychology 41 (3):254-311.
• An example of Mari Reiss Jones' work on time and timing in music.
Crick, F. 1988. What Mad Pursuit: A personal view of scientific discovery. New York: Basic Books.
• Source for the quote about Crick's early years as a scientist.
Crick, F. H. C. 1995. The astonishing hypothesis: The scientific search for the soul. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.
• Source for Crick's discussion of reductionism.
*Friston, K. J. 1994. Functional and effective connectivity in neuroimaging: a synthesis. Human Brain Mapping 2:56-68.
• The article on functional connectivity that helped Menon to create the analyses we needed for our paper on musical emotion and the nucleus accumbens
*Gallistel, C. R. 1989. The organization of learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• An example of Randy Gallistel's work.
*Goldstein, A. 1980. Thrills in response to music and other stimuli. Physiological Psychology 8 (1):126-129.
• The study that showed that naloxone can block musical emotion
*Grabow, J. D., M. J. Ebersold, and J. W. Albers. 1975. Summated Auditory Evoked-Potentials in Cerebellum and Inferior Colliculus in Young Rat. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 50 (2):57-68.
• Physiology and connections of the cerebellum
*Holinger, D. P., U. Bellugi, D. L. Mills, J. R. Korenberg, A. L. Reiss, G. F. Sherman, and A. M. Galaburda. In press. Relative sparing of primary auditory cortex in Williams Syndrome. Brain Research.
• The article that Ursula told Crick about.
*Hopfield, J. J. 1982. Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences 79 (8):2554-2558.
• The first statement of Hopfield nets, a form of neural network model.
*Huang, C., and G. Liu. 1990. Organization of the Auditory Area in the Posterior Cerebellar Vermis of the Cat. Experimental Brain Research 81 (2):377-383.
*Huang, C.-M., G. Liu, and R. Huang. 1982. Projections from the cochlear nucleus to the cerebellum. Brain Research 244:1-8.
*Ivry, R. B., and R. E. Hazeltine. 1995. Perception and production of temporal intervals across a range of durations: Evidence for a common timing mechanism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 21 (1):3-18.
• Papers on the physiology, anatomy, and connectivity of the cerebellum and lower auditory areas
*Jastreboff, P. J. 1981. Cerebellar Interaction with the Acoustic Reflex. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 41 (3):279-298.
•Source for information on the acoustic "startle" reflex
*Jones, M. R. 1987. Dynamic pattern structure in music: recent theory and research. Perception & Psychophysics 41:621-634.
*Jones, M. R., and M. Boltz. 1989. Dynamic attending and responses to time. Psychological Review 96:459-491.
• Examples of Jones' work on timing and music.
*Keele, S. W., and R. Ivry. 1990. Does The Cerebellum Provide A Common Computation For Diverse Tasks - A Timing Hypothesis. Annals Of The New York Academy Of Sciences 608:179-211.
• Example of Ivry's work on timing and the cerebellum.
*Large, E. W., and M. R. Jones. 1995. The time course of recognition of novel melodies. Perception and Psychophysics 57 (2):136-149.
*———. 1999. The dynamics of attending: How people track time-varying events. Psychological Review 106 (1):119-159.
• Important foundational articles for understanding memory and attention in music processing
*Lee, L. 2003. A report of the functional connectivity workshop, Düseldorf 2002. NeuroImage 19:457-465.
• One of the papers Menon read to create the analyses we needed for our nucleus accumbens study
*Levitin, D. J., and U. Bellugi. 1998. Musical abilities in individuals with Williams Syndrome. Music Perception 15 (4):357-389.
*Levitin, D. J., K. Cole, M. Chiles, Z. Lai, A. Lincoln, and U. Bellugi. 2004. Characterizing the musical phenotype in individuals with Williams syndrome. Child Neuropsychology 10 (4):223-247.
• Information on Williams syndrome and two studies of their musical abilities
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in "language" areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142-2152.
*———. 2005. The neural locus of temporal structure and expectancies in music: Evidence from functional neuroimaging at 3 Tesla. Music Perception 22 (3):563-575.
*Levitin, D. J., V. Menon, J.E. Schmitt, S. Eliez, C. D. White, G. H. Glover, J. Kadis, J. R. Korenberg, U. Bellugi, and A. L. Reiss. 2003. Neural correlates of auditory perception in Williams syndrome: An fMRI study. NeuroImage 18 (1):74-82.
• Studies that showed cerebellar activations to music listening
*Loeser, J. D., R. J. Lemire, and E. C. Alvord. 1972. Development of Folia in Human Cerebellar Vermis. Anatomical Record 173 (1):109-&.
• Background on cerebellar physiology
*Menon, V., and D. J. Levitin. 2005. The rewards of music listening: Response and physiological connectivity of themesolimbic system. NeuroImage 28 (1):175-184.
• The paper in which we showed the involvement of the nucleus accumbens and the brain's reward system in music listening.
*Merzenich, M. M., W.M. Jenkins, P. Johnston, C. Schreiner, S.L. Miller, and P. Tallal. 1996. Temporal Processing Deficits of Language-Learning Impaired Children Ameliorated by Training. Science 271:77-81.
• Paper showing that dyslexia may be caused by a timing deficit in children's auditory systems.
*Middleton, F. A., and P. L. Strick. 1994. Anatomical Evidence for Cerebellar and Basal Ganglia Involvement in Higher Cognitive Function. Science 266 (5184):458-461.
*Penhune, V. B., R. J. Zatorre, and A. C. Evans. 1998. Cerebellar contributions to motor timing: A PET study of auditory and visual rhythm reproduction. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience 10 (6):752-765.
*Schmahmann, J. D. 1991. An Emerging Concept - the Cerebellar Contribution to Higher Function. Archives of Neurology 48 (11):1178-1187.
*Schmahmann, J. D., and J. C. Sherman. 1997. Cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. In Cerebellum and Cognition.
*Schmahmann, Jeremy D., ed. 1997. The Cerebellum and Cognition. Vol. International Review of Neurobiology, v. 41. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
*Schmahmann, S. D., and J. C. Sherman. 1988. The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain and Cognition 121:561-579.
• Background information on the cerebellum, function and anatomy.
*Tallal, P., S.L. Miller, G. Bedi, G. Byma, X. Wang, S. S. Nagarajan, C. Schreiner, W.M. Jenkins, and M. M. Merzenich. 1996. Language Comprehension in Language-Learning Impaired Children Improved with Acoustically Modified Speech. Science 271:81-84.
• Paper showing that dyslexia may be caused by a timing deficit in children's auditory systems.
*Ullman, S. 1996. High-level vision: Object recognition and visual cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• On the architecture of the visual system
*Weinberger, N. M. 1999. Music and the auditory system. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
• On the physiology and connectivity of the music/auditory system.
Chapter 7
*Abbie, A. A. 1934. The projection of the forebrain on the pons and cerebellum. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Biological Sciences) 115:504-522.
• Source of the quote about the cerebellum being involved in art.
*Chi, Michelene T.H., Robert Glaser, and Marshall J. Farr, eds. 1988. The Nature of Expertise. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Psychological studies of expertise, including chess players
*Elbert, T., C. Pantev, C. Wienbruch, B. Rockstroh, and E. Taub. 1995. Increased Cortical Representation Of The Fingers Of The Left Hand In String Players. Science 270 (5234):305-307.
• Source for the cortical changes associated with playing violin.
*Ericsson, K. A., and J. Smith, eds. 1991. Toward a General Theory of Expertise: prospects and limits. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• • Psychological studies of expertise, including chess players
*Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Cheng, P. C. H., Jones, G., Oliver, I., Pine, J. M. 2001. Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5:236-243.
• On chunking for memory
*Hayes, J. R. 1985. Three problems in teaching general skills. In Thinking and Learning Skills: Research and Open Questions, edited by S. F. Chipman, J. W. Segal and R. Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Source for the study of Mozart's early works not being highly regarded, and refutation that Mozart didn't need 10,000 hours like everyone else to become an expert.
Howe, M. J. A., J. W. Davidson, and J. A. Sloboda. 1998. Innate talents: Reality or myth? Behavioral & Brain Sciences 21 (3):399-442.
• One of my favorite articles, although I don't agree with everything in it; an overview of the "talent is a myth" viewpoint.
Levitin, D. J. 1982. Unpublished conversation with Neil Young, Woodside, CA.
———. 1996. Innterview: A Conversation with Joni Mitchell. Grammy, Spring, 26-32.
———. 1996. Stevie Wonder: Conversation in the key of life. Grammy, Summer, 14-25.
———. 1998. Still Creative After All These Years: A Conversation with Paul Simon. Grammy, February, 16-19, 46.
———. 2000. A conversation with Joni Mitchell. In The Joni Mitchell Companion: Four Decades of Commentary, edited by S. Luftig. New York: Schirmer Books.
———. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy Interview. Grammy, September, 42-46.
———. 2004. Unpublished conversation with Joni Mitchell, December, Los Angeles, CA.
• Sources for the anecdotes and quotations from these musicians about musical expertise
MacArthur, P. (1999). JazzHouston web site. http://www.jazzhouston.com/
forum/messages.jsp?key=352&page=7&pKey=1&fpage=1&total=588.
• Source of the quote about Rubenstein's mistakes
*Sloboda, J. A. 1991. Musical expertise. In Toward a general theory of expertise, edited by K. A. Ericcson and J. Smith. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Overview of issues and findings in musical expertise literature
Tellegen, Auke, David Lykken, Thomas Bouchard, Kimerly Wilcox, Nancy Segal, and Stephen Rich. 1988. Personality Similarity in Twins Reared Apart and Together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (6):1031-1039.
• The Minnesota Twins study
*Vines, B. W., C. Krumhansl, M. M. Wanderley, and D. Levitin. In press. Cross-modal interactions in the perception of musical performance. Cognition.
• Source of the study about musician gestures conveying emotion.
Chapter 8
*Berlyne, D. E. 1971. Aesthetics and psychobiology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• On the "inverted U" hypothesis of musical liking.
*Gaser, C., and G. Schlaug. 2003. Gray matter differences between musicians and nonmusicians. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 999:514-517.
• Differences between the brains of musicians and non-musicians
*Husain, G., W. F. Thompson, and E. G. Schellenberg. 2002. Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial abilities. Music Perception 20 (2):151-171.
• The "Mozart Effect" explained.
*Hutchinson, S., L. H. Lee, N. Gaab, and G. Schlaug. 2003. Cerebellar volume of musicians. Cerebral Cortex 13:943-949.
• Differences between the brains of musicians and non-musicians
*Lamont, A. M. 2001. Infants' Preferences for Familiar and Unfamiliar Music: A Socio-Cultural Study. Paper read at Society for Music Perception and Cognition, August 9, 2001, at Kingston, ON.
• On infants' prenatal musical experience
*Lee, D. J., Y. Chen, and G. Schlaug. 2003. Corpus callosum: musician and gender effects. NeuroReport 14:205-209.
• Differences between the brains of musicians and non-musicians
*Rauscher, F. H., G. L. Shaw, and K. N. Ky. 1993. Music and spatial task performance. Nature 365:611.
• The original report of the "Mozart Effect"
*Saffran, J.R. 2003. Absolute pitch in infancy and adulthood: the role of tonal structure. Developmental Science 6 (1):35-47.
• On the use of absolute pitch cues by infants
*Schellenberg, E. G. 2003. Does exposure to music have beneficial side effects? In The cognitive neuroscience of music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Thompson, W. F., E. G. Schellenberg, and G. Husain. 2001. Arousal, mood, and the Mozart effect. Psychological Science 12 (3):248-251.
• The "Mozart Effect" explained
*Trainor, L.J., L. Wu, and C.D. Tsang. 2004. Long-term memory for music: Infants remember tempo and timbre. Developmental Science 7 (3):289-296.
• On the use of absolute pitch cues by infants
*Trehub, S. E. 2003. The developmental origins of musicality. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):669-673.
*———. 2003. Musical predispositions in infancy. In The cognitive neuroscience of music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• On early infant musical experience
Chapter 9
Barrow, J. D. 1995. The artful universe. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
• "music has no role in survival of the species"
Blacking, J. 1995. Music, culture and experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• "The embodied nature of music, the indivisibility of movement and sound, characterizes music across cultures and across time"
Buss, D. M., M. G. Haselton, T. K. Shackelford, A. L. Bleske, and J. C. Wakefield. 2002. Adaptations, exaptations, and spandrels. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
I've intentionally avoided making a distinction between two types of evolutionary by-products, spandrels and exaptations, in order to simplify the presentation in this chapter, and I've used the term "spandrels" for both types of evolutionary by-products. Because Gould himself did not use the terms consistently through his writings, and because the main point is not compromised by glossing over this distinction, I present a simplified explanation here, and I don't think that readers will suffer any loss of understanding. Buss, et al. discuss this distinction and others, based on the work of Stephen Jay Gould cited below.
*Cosmides, L. 1989. The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Cognition 31:187-276.
*Cosmides, L., and J. Tooby. 1989. Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, Part II. Case Study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:51-97.
• Perspectives of evolutionary psychology on cognition as adaptation.
Cross, I. 2001. Music, Cognition, Culture, and Evolution. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 930:28-42.
———. 2001. Music, mind and evolution. Psychology of Music 29 (1):95-102.
———. 2003. Music and biocultural evolution. In The cultural study of music: a critical introduction, edited by M. Clayton, T. Herbert and R. Middleton: Routledge.
———. 2003. Music and evolution: consequences and causes. Comparative Music Review 22 (3):79-89.
———. 2004. Music and meaning, ambiguity and evolution. In Musical Communications, edited by D. Miell, R. MacDonald and D. Hargraves.
• The sources for Cross' arguments as articulated in this chapter
Darwin, C. 1871/2004. The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. New York: Penguin Classics.
• The source for the ideas Darwin had about music, sexual selection, and adaptation. "I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively…."
*Deaner, R. O., and C. L. Nunn. 1999. How quickly do brains catch up with bodies? A comparative method for detecting evolutionary lag. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266 (1420):687 - 694.
• on evolutionary lag
Gleason, J. B. 2004. The development of language. Sixth ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Undergraduate text on the development of language ability
*Gould, S. J. 1991. Exaptation: A crucial tool for evolutionary psychology. Journal of Social issues 47:43-65.
• Gould's explication of different kinds of evolutionary by-products.
Huron, D. 2001. Is music an evolutionary adaptation? In Biological Foundations Of Music.
• Huron's response to Pinker (1997); the idea of comparing autism to Williams Syndrome for an argument about the link between musicality and sociability first appeared here.
*Miller, G. F. 1999. Sexual selection for cultural displays. In The evolution of culture, edited by R. Dunbar, C. Knight and C. Power. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U. Press.
*———. 2000. Evolution of human music through sexual selection. In The origins of music, edited by N. L. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
———. 2001. Aesthetic fitness: how sexual selection shaped artistic virtuosity as a fitness indicator and aesthetic preferences as mate choice criteria. Bulletin of psychology and the arts 2 (1):20-25.
*Miller, G.F., and M. G. Haselton. 2004. Women's fertility across the cycle increases the short-term attractiveness of creative intelligence compared to wealth. Human nature.
• Source articles for Miller's view on music as sexual fitness display.
Pinker, S. 1997. How the mind works. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Source of Pinker's "auditory cheesecake" analogy.
Sapolsky, R. M. Why Zebra's Don't Get Ulcers. Third ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
• On evolutionary lag
Sperber, D. 1996. Explaining culture. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
• music as an evolutionary parasite
*Tooby, J., and L. Cosmides. 2002. Toward mapping the evolved functional organization of mind and brain. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• another work by these evolutionary psychologists on cognition as adaptation
Turk, I. Mousterian bone flue. Znanstvenoraziskovalni Center Sazu 1997 [cited December 1, 2005. Available from http://www.uvi.si/eng/slovenia/background-information/neanderthal-flute/.
• The original report on the discovery of the Slovenian bone flute.
*Wallin, N. L. 1991. Biomusicology: Neurophysiological, Neuropsychological and Evolutionary Perspectives on the Origins and Purposes of Music. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press.
*Wallin, N. L., B. Merker, and S. Brown, eds. 2001. The Origins of Music. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Further reading on the evolutionary origins of music.
